Topic - What is Discourse and Discourse Analysis?(Paper-12) ELT

                         Assignment

Name: Maheta Arati R.

Class:  M.A.-2

Semester -3

Roll No. -2

Paper: - 12(English Language Teaching)

Topic:   What is Discourse & Discourse Analysis?

Submitted to: Department of English

             (MK Bhavnagar University)

Guided by: Parth Sir.

Batch: 2013-15

Year: 2014-15

Words: 1,806

                                        Definition of  discourse

                              The study of Discourse is the study of language independently of the notion of the sentence. This usually involves studying longer (spoken and written) text but above all it involves examining the relationship between a text and the situation in which it occurs, So even any short notice can be also studied as discourse.     

                                 It is behavioral unit.it is set of utterances which constitute a recognizable speech event Example a conversation, a joke, a sermon an interview etc. In its historical and etymological perspective this term is used in different perspective E.g.

a)     Verbal communication.

b)    All the fine talks.

c)     Direct or Indirect speech.

d)     To chat.

In order to narrow down the range of possible meanings, the modern linguists have given different views or definition.

Example

Discourse is written as well as spoken: every utterance assuming the a speaker and a hearer as discourse.

(Benevolences, 1971: 208-9)

An individualize group of statements and sometimes as a regulated practice that counts for a number of statements.

(Foucault, 1972: 80)

The specification with the term is that ‘discourse must be used with its social purpose’ this is the main specification of discourse.

The brief difference between discourse and text, I think, will facilitate to better understand the term Discourse.    

  

                  Difference between’ Discourse’ and ‘Text’

                      

                                                                    (Crystal 1987)

Some scholars talk about ‘spoken or written discourse’ other about ‘spoken or written text’s

                                                                     (Crystal 1987)

                                           It means discourse and text can be used almost synonymously, but a distinction is always there and that is discourse has some Social purpose while text fulfills the function of communication of some meaning only. As suggested by Michael Stubbs (1983) who treats text and discourse as more or less synonymous.

 Hawthorn (1992) says text may be non-interactive whereas discourse is interactive .Means to say text in non-interactive that it only fulfill the function of conveying some meaning. But discourse is always involved in two ways responses in some formal or informal conversation and dialogues etc.

Hawthorn (1992) further says ‘discourse is linguistic communication seen as a transaction between speaker and hearer. while text is also a linguistics communication (either spoken or written) seen simply as a message coded in its auditory or visual medium’

                                   Conclusion

                     In conclusion we can say Discourse and Text have something in common as both use the medium of language whether in sign language. Both have some meaning that they try to convey.

But text has a limited scope as compare with discourse. In other words we can say discourse is somewhat broad category in the system of language, and text deals with the written form of language. Discourse has different form as Discourse of advertising, Discourse of Racism and Discourse of Medical etc. but text has no such forms. Discourse can be found with in text, and not vice verse. Text has its maximum interpretation in its own self but discourse has a lot of things above the language level

                                What is Discourse Analysis?

The study of the ways in which Language is used in Texts and contexts. Developed in the 1970s and discourse analysis ‘’concern itself with the use of language in a running discourse, continued over a number of sentences and 

Involving the interaction of [speaker (or writer) and auditor (or reader)] in specific situation context and within a framework of social and cultural conventions’’

(M.H.Abrams and G.G.Harpham, A Glossary of Literary Terms, 2005)

Ø Discourse can be defined in three ways

        i.            Language beyond the level of a sentence

      ii.            Language behaviors

    iii.            Language as a system of thought

Discourse Analysis (DA) is a modern discipline of the social sciences that covers a wide variety of different sociolinguistic approaches. Aim of the (DA) is to study and analyse the use of discourse in at least one of the three ways stated as above, and more often than not all of them at once .Analysis of discourse looks not only at the basic level of what is said but takes into consideration surrounding social and historical context.

 Discourse analysis (DA) or discourse studies is a general term for a number of approaches to analyse written, vocal or sign language use or any significant semiotic event. The object of discourse analysis is variously defined in term of coherent sequence of sentences, prepositions, speech or turns at talk. Contrary to much of traditional linguistics, discourse analysts  not only study language use ‘beyond the sentences boundary’ but also prefer to analyse ‘naturally occurring ‘language use and not invented examples.

                   Discourse analysis has been taken up in a variety of social science disciplines including linguistics, education, sociology, anthropology, social work, cognitive psychology, social psychology, area studies, cultural studies, international relations, human geography, and communication studies and translation studies each of which is subject to its own assumptions, dimensions of analysis and methodologies.

             

Discourse analysis is an attempt to discover linguistic regularities in discourse using grammatical, phonological and semantic criteria.

Example

it is an effort to interpreter what the writer or speaker intended to convey with in a sensitive social context.

Example:

                               Father: Is that your coat on the floor again?

                                 Son: Yes (goes on reading)

Here in the above example Discourse Analysis says that the answer of the son is not clear one. It shows the exploitation of ambiguity about father’s command to pick up his coat. Rather the son deals his father’s command as a simple content question which can be answered in yes/ No

         Discourse Analysis is a process which the reader and listener‘s mind is working up on the linguistic features the utterance to grasp the intended meaning of the writer or speaker.

    Even if the utterances or sentences are ungrammatical the Discourse Analysis makes us grasp the intended meanings.

Example:

                                            My natal was in small town, very close to Riyadh Capital of Saudi Arabia. The distance between my town and Riadh 7 miles exactly. The name of this Almasani that means in English factories.  It takes its name from the people carrer. In childhood I remember the people live. It was very simple most the people was farmer

                The above paragraph is full of grammatical mistakes since by Discourse Analysis of this text we can grasp mostly what is the information the writer wants to communicate.

            Discourse concerns with communication so Discourse Analysis gives us the interpretation of the communicated commodity.

                                Devices for Discourse Analysis

We use different tools for Discourse Analysis. Some of them are as under:

                Example:

 He did that there.

Every word has some anaphoric reference with which interpretation could not be made.

Example:

Here is the 9, O Clock news.

By using these relation and links we can better interpret and analyzed discourse. 

The language users try to an interpretation in the scenario of knowledge of the world they possess. Coherence is not something which exists in the language but something which exists in people. By using coherence the reader uses semantic unity the paragraph.

 Example:

                Her: That’s the telephone

                        Him: I’ am in the bath.

            Her:    OK.

We can interpret the above dialogue with the help of conventional action and by our background knowledge that someone in the bathroom cannot attend the telephone.

                          3) Parallelism

Parallelism means side by side. In some piece of literature some comparisons or contrasts go side by side with each other. They also help to interpreter the whole text.

Example:

In Jane Austen’s ‘Pride and Prejudice’, good marriages and bad marriages are compared and contrasted on parallel levels.

(4) Speech Events

Speech events are mainly concerned what people say in different environment e.g. Debate, interview, discussions, quiz etc. are different Speech Events. Speakers may have different speech roles as friend, strangers, young or old of equal or unequal status

This background knowledge about the personality and environment give a better comprehension for better interpretation of discourse.

               

(5) Background Knowledge

Background knowledge can be very much helpful in interpreting any text.

Schema and script are two terms that comprise the background knowledge. Schema and script tells us what actually the real situation is and what the actions are.

 Schema is conventional knowledge which exists in memory.

Script is essentially a dynamic schema in which conventional action takes place.

The schema of a supermarket holds the knowledge ‘food displayed on shelves, checkout counters’ etc. While in script such actions are involved as going to movies, eating in a restaurant etc.

Example:  

Trying not to be out of the office Suzy went into the nearest place, sat down and ordered a sandwich.

Here in the above example the background knowledge of the situation and the action can be traced out through the schema and script as:

Schema tells us:

  Suzy may be an office girl

 The nearest place is some restaurant.

Script tells us:

          About the action she performed as:

  Firstly, she unlocked the door.

  Secondly, she walked to the nearest restaurant.

  Thirdly, she opened the door of the restaurant etc.

 Here schema and script tells us what is actually the real situation and what are the actions

(6). Conversational Interaction

          Conversation is an activity where for the most part two or more people take turns at speaking: in these turns at speaking one has to pick up the completion point to take his/her turn to speak. This is conversational interaction.

During the discourse we not only taking part in conversation but we are also analyzing, the discourse simultaneously. So in the conversation turn taking helps us to successfully complete the discourse.

(7) The co-operation principle

            Grice (1975) set Four Maxims which say that in conversational exchanges the participants are in fact co-operating with each other.

(i). Maxim of Quantity

 Make your contribution as informative as is required but not more or less than is required.

(ii). Maxim of Quality

 Don’t say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack evidence.

(iii). Maxim of Relation

            Be relevant

(iv).      Maxim of Manner

 Be clear, brief and orderly.

            Example:

            Carol: Are you coming to the party tonight?

            Lara:  I've got exam tomorrow.

           

Apparently this exchange has no relevance but by using these Maxims we can analyze the discourse as:

1.     Maxim of Quantity:- information is that Lara has exams

2.     Maxim of Quality: She is describing a fact of her exams.

3.     Maxim of Relation: It is the reason why she could not come to the party

4.     Maxim of Manner: A clear cut refusal.

The following can be the intended meaning:

Tomorrow        :       Exam

Tonight           :         Study, Preparation

Tonight            :        No party

Intended meaning:            Refusal

 The analysis of the above statement shows the use of maxims of co- cooperation in Discourse Analysis.